Sun Tzu
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus
Spartacus
Xiahou Dun
Abu al-Abbās
Saint Cyril
Al-Farabi
Avicenna aka ibn Sina
We are honored to have Rafael with us. He is going to share with us some very exciting lives he lived.
Friday, February 7, 2020
A few short lives of Rafael before 1000AD
Sun Tzu
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus
Spartacus
Xiahou Dun
Abu al-Abbās
Saint Cyril
Al-Farabi
Avicenna aka ibn Sina
We are honored to have Rafael with us. He is going to share with us some very exciting lives he lived.
Sun Tzu (544BC–496BC)
I was born in China and became a Chinese general, military strategist, a philosopher and a writer. I was the author of “The Art of War” a widely influential work of military strategy that has affected both Western and Eastern philosophy. I became revered in Chinese and Asian culture as a legendary historical figure. Skilled and experienced in warfare matters during a time of unprecedented political and military turmoil, I was a military specialist active during the turbulent late Chou dynasty. However, I became a legend for writing about Chinese military strategy and martial arts.
My work has been praised and employed throughout East Asia since its composition. 3000 years after my death, my book “The Art of War” grew in popularity and saw practical use in Western society as well. It continues to influence many competitive endeavors in Asia, Europe, and America including culture, politics, business, and sports, as well as modern warfare.
I was active as a general and strategist, serving king Helu of Wu when I was 32 years old. My victories inspired me to write “The Art of War”, one of the most widely read military treatises in the subsequent Warring States period - a time of constant war among 7 nations who fought to control the vast expanse of fertile territory in Eastern China.
One of the more well-known stories about me illustrates my temperament. Before hiring me, the King of Wu tested my skills by commanding me to train a harem of 180 concubines into soldiers. I divided them into 2 companies, appointing the 2 concubines most favored by the king as the company commanders. When I first ordered the concubines to face right, they giggled. In response, I said that I, as their general, was responsible for ensuring that they, as my soldiers, understood the commands given to them. Then, I reiterated the command, and again the concubines giggled. I then ordered the execution of the king's two favored concubines, to the king's protests. I explained that if the general's soldiers understood their commands but did not obey, it was the fault of the officers. I also said that, once a general was appointed, it was his duty to carry out his mission, even if the king protested. After both concubines were killed, new officers were chosen to replace them. Afterwards, both companies, now well aware of the costs of further frivolity, performed their maneuvers flawlessly. I later proved on the battlefield that my theories were effective.
“The Art of War” presented a philosophy of war for managing conflicts and winning battles. It was accepted as a masterpiece on strategy and has been frequently cited and referred to by generals and theorists from the time it was first published, translated, and distributed internationally.
Of the military texts written before Qin Shi's unification of China and book burnings between 230 BC and 220 BC, 6 major works on warfare survived. During the much later Song dynasty, these 6 works were combined into a collection called the “Seven Military Classics”. As a central part of that compilation, “The Art of War” formed the foundations of orthodox military theory and the book was required reading to pass the tests for imperial appointment to military positions. “Art of War” used language that is unusual in a Western text on warfare and strategy. For example, it stated that a leader must be "serene and mysterious" and capable of comprehending "incomprehensible plans". The text contained many similar remarks that have long confused Western readers. The meanings of such statements were clearer when interpreted in the context of Taoist thought and practice. I viewed the ideal general as an enlightened Taoist master, which has led to “The Art of War” being considered a prime example of Taoist strategy.
The book has also become popular among political leaders and those in business management. A general of an army can be compared to a political leader of a political party, or a CEO of a company. Despite its title, “The Art of War” addressed strategy in a broad fashion, touching upon public administration and planning. The text outlined theories of battle, but also advocated diplomacy and the cultivation of relationships with other nations as essential to the health of a state.
“Art of War” has influenced many notable figures. China's first historical emperor Qin Shi considered the book invaluable in ending the time of the Warring States. In the 20th century, the Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong partially credited his 1949 AD victory over Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang to “The Art of War”. The work strongly influenced Mao's writings about guerrilla warfare, which further influenced communist insurgencies around the world.
“The Art of War” was introduced into Japan around 760 AD and the book quickly became popular among Japanese generals. It significantly affected the unification of Japan in the early modern era. Mastery of its teachings was honored among the samurai – feudal warriors and its teachings were both exhorted and exemplified by influential daimyos – feudal lords and the shogun – the supreme commander. Subsequently, it remained popular among the Imperial Japanese armed forces. Ho Chi Minh translated the work for his Vietnamese officers to study. The strategist generals behind Vietnamese victories over French and American forces were likewise avid students and practitioners of my ideas.
3,000 years after I died, America's Asian conflicts against Japan, North Korea, and North Vietnam brought me to the attention of American military leaders. The Department of the Army in the United States directed all units to maintain libraries within their respective headquarters for the continuing education of personnel in the art of war. “The Art of War” was mentioned as an example of works to be maintained at each facility, and staff duty officers are obliged to prepare short papers for presentation to other officers on their readings. During the Gulf War, both Generals Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. and Colin Powell employed my principles related to deception, speed, and striking one's enemy's weak points.
The text is composed of 13 chapters, each of which is devoted to one aspect of warfare.
- Detail Assessment and Planning explores the 5 fundamental factors – 1) the way, 2) seasons, 3) terrain, 4) leadership and 5) management - and elements that determines the outcomes of engagements. By thinking, assessing and comparing these points, a commander is able to calculate his chances of victory. Habitual deviation from these calculations ensures failure via improper action. The text stressed that war was a very grave matter for the state and must not be commenced without due consideration.
- Waging War explains how to understand the economy of warfare and how success requires winning decisive engagements quickly. This section advises that successful campaigns required limiting the cost of competition and conflict.
- Strategic Attack defines the source of strength as unity, not size, and discusses the 5 factors that are needed to succeed in any war. In order of importance, these critical factors are: Attack, Strategy, Alliances, Army and Cities.
- Disposition of the Army explains the importance of defending existing positions until a commander is capable of advancing from those positions in safety. It teaches commanders the importance of recognizing strategic opportunities, and taught not to create opportunities for the enemy.
- Forces explains the use of creativity and timing in building an army's momentum.
- Weaknesses and Strengths explains how an army's opportunities from the openings in the environment caused by the relative weakness of the enemy and how one has to respond to changes in the fluid battlefield over a given area.
- Maneuvers explains the dangers of direct conflict and how one wins those confrontations when they are forced upon the commander.
- Variations and Adaptability focuses on the need for flexibility in an army's responses. It explains how one has to respond to shifting circumstances.
- Movement and Development of Troops describes the different situations in which an army finds itself as it moves through new enemy territories, and how one has to respond to those situations. Much of this section focuses on evaluating the intentions of others.
- Terrain looks at the 3 general areas of resistance - distance, dangers and barriers, and the 6 types of ground positions that arise from them. Each of those 6 field positions offered certain advantages and disadvantages.
- Battlegrounds describes the 9 common situations or stages in a campaign, and the specific focus that a commander needs to have in order to successfully navigate them.
- Attacking with Fire explains the general use of weapons and the specific use of the environment as a weapon. This section examines the 5 targets for attack, the 5 types of environmental attack and the appropriate responses to such attacks.
- Intelligence and Espionage focuses on the importance of developing good information sources, and specifies the 5 types of intelligence sources and the best ways of managing them.
“The Art of War” has been applied to many fields well outside of the military. Much of the text is about how to fight wars without actually having to do battle. It gives tips on how to outsmart one's opponent so that physical battle is not necessary. As such, it finds application as a training guide for many competitive endeavors that does not involve actual combat. It can well have been titled “The Art of Confronting Confrontations and Conflicts”.
Applicable for teaching lessons in “office politics” and “corporate strategy”, “The Art of War” has offered inspiration and advice on how to succeed in competitive business situations. It has also been applied to the field of education, and has been the subject of law books and legal articles on the trial process, including negotiation tactics and trial strategy. It has also been applied in the world of sports using its lessons to gain insights in preparing for games.
“If you know both yourself and your enemy, you can win numerous battles without jeopardy”.
“All warfare is based on deception. Hence, when we are able to attack, we must seem unable; when using our forces, we must appear inactive; when we are near, we must make the enemy believe we are far away; when far away, we must make him believe we are near”.
Taoist rhetoric was a component incorporated in “The Art of War”. Warfare and rhetoric are both arts. Warfare is analogous to persuasion, as a battle for hearts and minds. Taoist rhetoric in the art of war strategies is described as "peaceful and passive, favoring silence over speech". This form of communication is extremely economical. Frugal behavior, highly emphasized in “The Art of War”, avoids confrontation.
A modern interpretation of my teachings is critical in understanding China's push to becoming a superpower in the twenty-first century. There is a great perceived value in my teachings which are used regularly in developing the strategies of the Chinese state and its leaders. Actions speak louder than words.
In my next life I was born to become a Roman general and later consul. I became to be regarded as one of the greatest generals and military strategists of all time. My main achievements were during the Second Punic War where I was best known for defeating Hannibal. Although considered a hero by the general Roman populace, primarily for my contributions in the struggle against the Carthaginians, I was reviled by other patricians of my day. In my later years, I was tried for bribery and treason, unfounded charges that were only meant to discredit me before the public. Disillusioned by the ingratitude of my peers, I left Rome and withdrew from public life.
I was a charismatic man of great intellect and culture and could speak and read Greek. I became noted for my introduction of the clean shaven face fashion among the Romans according to the example of Alexander the Great. This men's fashion lasted until Emperor Hadrian 200 years after I died. It was revived again 200 years after Hadrian died by Constantine the Great. I also enjoyed the reputation of being a graceful orator, the secret of my sway being my deep self-confidence and radiant sense of fairness. I was often harsh and arrogant to my political opponents, but towards others, I was gracious and sympathetic. My love of everything Greek, my Greek lifestyle, and my unconventional way of wearing the Roman toga, raised much opposition among some Senators of Rome.
Cato as a representative of the old Romans felt that Greek influence was destroying Roman culture. I often visited the temple of Jupiter and made offerings there. Many believed that I myself believed that I was a special favorite of heaven and actually communicated with the gods. I actually believed that my successes resulted from good planning, rational thinking and intelligence, which I said was a higher sign of the gods' favor than prophetic dreams. People had only said that I had supernatural powers because they had not appreciated the natural mental gifts which facilitated my achievements.
I was considered by many to be one of Rome's greatest generals. I never lost a battle. Skillful alike in strategy and in tactics, I had also the faculty of inspiring my soldiers with confidence. I was the first Roman general to expand Roman territories outside Italy and islands around the Italian mainland. I conquered the Carthaginian territory of Spain for Rome. My defeat of Hannibal paved the way for Carthage's eventual destruction in 146 BC.
I supported land distribution for my veterans in a tradition harking back to the earliest days of the Republic, yet my actions were seen as somewhat radical by conservatives. In being a successful general who demanded lands for my soldiers, I may have led the way for later generals such as Julius Caesar. Unlike Caesar, however, I did not seek to use my charisma and reputation to weaken the Republic. The true measure of my character in this regard can perhaps be seen by my behavior shortly after returning in triumph from Africa to a grateful Rome. I refused to accept demands for me to become perpetual consul and dictator. For my self-restraint in putting the good of the republic ahead of my own gain, I was praised for showing uncommon greatness of mind.
I was born by Caesarian section to one of the 6 ruling class families of the Roman Republic. I joined the Roman struggle against Carthage in the first year of the Second Punic War when my father was consul. During a skirmish I saved my father's life by charging the encircling force alone with reckless daring. I survived in a battle that killed my would-be father-in-law, the consul. After the battle, I took charge of some 10,000 survivors. On hearing that some nobles were planning to go overseas to serve some king, I stormed into the meeting, and at sword-point, forced all present to swear that they would not abandon Rome.
When I was 23 years old, I offered myself as a candidate for the office responsible for maintenance of public buildings and regulation of public festivals. The position also had powers to enforce public order. The Tribunes of the Plebs objected to my candidacy, saying that I could not be allowed to stand because I had not yet reached the legal age. Already known for my bravery and patriotism, I was elected unanimously and the Tribunes abandoned their opposition. 2 years later, both my father and my uncle were killed in battle against Hannibal's brother. At the election for the command of the new army which the Romans resolved to send to Spain, I was the only man brave enough to ask for this position, no other candidates wanting the responsibility, considering it a death sentence. In spite of my youth, my noble demeanor and enthusiastic language I had made so great an impression that I was unanimously elected. In the year of my arrival, all of Spain south of the Ebro River was under Carthaginian control. Hannibal's brothers were the generals of the Carthaginian forces in Spain and Rome was aided by their inability to act in concert. The Carthaginians were also preoccupied with revolts in Africa.
I landed at the mouth of the Ebro and was able to surprise and capture the headquarters of the Carthaginian power in Spain I obtained a rich cache of war stores and supplies, and an excellent harbor and base of operations. My humanitarian conduct toward prisoners and hostages in Spain helped in portraying the Romans as liberators as opposed to conquerors. I had a weakness for beautiful women, and knowing this, some of my soldiers presented me with a beautiful young woman captured in New Carthage as a prize of war. I was astonished by her beauty, but discovered that the woman was betrothed and I returned the woman to her fiancé, along with the money that had been offered by her parents to ransom her. This humanitarian act encouraged locals to both supply and reinforce my small army. The woman's fiancé responded by bringing over his tribe to support the Roman armies.
When I was 27, I fought my first battle, a battle in which both sides choose the fighting location and time, and where either side had the option to disengage either before the battle started, or shortly after the first armed exchanges. Despite being victorious, I was unable to hinder the Carthaginian march to Italy that eventually ended up crossing the Alps and being defeated by other Roman generals. A year later, I was unanimously elected to consulship. I intended to go to Africa, but due to the envy of others in the Senate, I was not given any additional troops beyond the Sicilian garrison. Despite this resistance, I gathered resources from clients and supporters in Rome and among the Italian communities. This allowed me to muster a volunteer force of 30 warships and 7000 men.
The forces stationed in Sicily at this time included a variety of forces. The Romans had for a long time used service in Sicily as a punishment for soldiers who were defeated in battle. The garrison in Sicily contained survivors from many of the greatest Roman military fiascoes in the war. Having served with these men, I was well aware that their disgrace was through no fault of their own. From these men, I was able to muster a highly motivated and very experienced force for my African invasion. I ended up turning Sicily into a camp for training my army.
I realized that the Carthaginian forces—especially the superior cavalry—would prove decisive against the largely infantry forces of the Roman legions. In addition, a large portion of Rome's cavalry were allies of questionable loyalty, or nobles exempting themselves from being lowly foot soldiers. I pressed into service several hundred Sicilian nobles to create a cavalry force. The Sicilians were quite opposed to this servitude to a foreign occupier, Sicily being under Roman control only since the First Punic War protested vigorously. I assented to their exemption from service providing they pay for a horse, equipment, and a replacement rider for the Roman army. In this way, I created a trained nucleus of cavalry for my African campaign.
The Roman Senate sent a commission of inquiry to Sicily and found me at the head of a well-equipped and trained fleet and army. I pressed the Senate for permission to cross into Africa. Some of the Roman Senate opposed the mission still fearing Hannibal's power, and viewed any mission to Africa as dangerous and wasteful to the war effort. I was also harmed by some senators' disdain of my ideals, beliefs, and interests in unconventional areas such as my love of Greek art, luxuries, and philosophies. All I could obtain was permission to cross over from Sicily to Africa if it appeared to be in the interests of Rome, but not financial or military support.
When I was 32 years old, I got the permission from the commissioners to sail and land near Utica. Carthage, meanwhile, had secured aid from nearby which compelled me to abandon the siege of Utica and dig in on the shore between there and Carthage. A year later, I destroyed the armies of the Carthaginians by approaching by stealth and setting fire to their camp, where the army panicked and fled after I killed most of the soldiers. The death toll in this single attack exceeded 40,000 Carthaginian.
Deserted by its allies and surrounded by a veteran and undefeated Roman army, Carthage began opening diplomatic channels for negotiation. At the same time, Hannibal and his army were recalled to Carthage, and despite the moderate terms offered to Carthage by me, Carthage suddenly suspended negotiations and again prepared for war. Hannibal had a trained pool of soldiers who had fought in Italy, as well as 80 war elephants. Hannibal could boast around 36,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry, compared to my 29,000 infantry and 6,100 cavalry. We met on a plain between Carthage and Utica. I was 34 years old. Despite mutual admiration, negotiations floundered largely because of Roman distrust of the Carthaginians. Hannibal's strategy, so oft reliant upon subtle stratagems, was simple: a massive forward attack by the war elephants to create gaps in the Roman lines, which the infantry supported by the cavalry could exploit.
Rather than arranging my forces in the traditional lines, parallel to the enemy's line, I instead put them in lines perpendicular to the enemy, a stratagem designed to counter the war elephants. When the Carthaginian elephants charged, they found well laid traps before the Roman position and were greeted by Roman trumpeters, which drove many back out of confusion and fear. In addition, many elephants were goaded harmlessly through the loose ranks by skirmishers. Roman javelins were used to good effect, and the sharp traps caused further disorder among the elephants. Many of them were so distraught that they charged back into their own lines. The Roman infantry was greatly rattled by the elephants, but the Roman cavalry began to drive the opposing cavalry off the field. Both cavalry commanders pursued their routing Carthaginian counterparts, leaving the Carthaginian and Roman infantries to engage one another. The resulting infantry clash was fierce and bloody, with neither side achieving local superiority. The Roman infantry had driven off the 2 front lines of the Carthaginian army. The Roman army was then drawn up in one long line as opposed to the traditional 3 lines in order to match the length of Hannibal's line.
My army then marched towards Hannibal's veterans, who had not yet taken part in the battle. The final struggle was bitter and won only when the allied cavalry rallied and returned to the battle field. Many Roman aristocrats, especially Cato, expected me to raze that city to the ground after my victory. However, I dictated extremely moderate terms in contrast to an immoderate Roman Senate. While the security of Rome was guaranteed by demands such as the surrender of the fleet, and a lasting tribute was to be paid, the demands were sufficiently light for Carthage to regain its full prosperity. With my consent, Hannibal was allowed to become the civic leader of Carthage, which the Cato family did not forget. I was welcomed back to Rome in triumph. I refused the many further honors which the people would have thrust upon me such as Consul for life and Dictator.
When I was 37, I was elected Censor and for some years afterwards I lived quietly and took no part in politics. 6 years later, I was one of the commissioners sent to Africa to settle a dispute but was unsuccessful because Hannibal, in the service of Antiochus III of Syria, might have come to Carthage to gather support for a new attack on Italy. 3 years after that, when the Romans declared war against Antiochus III, my 2 brothers brought the war to a conclusion by a decisive victory. When my brothers returned to Rome, they were charged by 2 tribunes of misappropriation of money received from Antiochus. As one of my brothers was about to produce his account-books, the other brother wrested them from his hands, tore them in pieces, and flung them on the floor of the Senate house. I then allegedly asked the courts why they were concerned about how 3,000 talents had been spent and apparently unconcerned about how 15,000 talents were entering the state coffers. That was the tribute that Antiochus was paying Rome after his defeat by my brothers. This high-handed act shamed the prosecution, and the case was dismissed, though one of them would again be charged and convicted, after I died.
When I was 41, I myself was subsequently accused of having been bribed by Antiochus. By reminding the people that it was the anniversary of my victory, I caused an outburst of enthusiasm in my favor. The people crowded round me and followed me to the Capitol, where they offered thanks to the gods and begged them to give Rome more citizens like me. Despite the popular support that I commanded, there were renewed attempts to bring me to trial, but these were put to rest by my future son-in-law. I retired to my country seat at on the coast of Campania where I lived for the rest of my life.
I died when I was 53 years old of the lingering effects of the fever contracted while on campaign 7 years before. Some believed that I committed suicide. Before I died, I had demanded that my body be buried away from my ungrateful city, and the Emperor Augustus is said to have visited my tomb more than 150 years later. I ordered that my gravestone have the following inscription: “ungrateful fatherland, you will not even have my bones”.
My relatives continued to dominate the republic for a couple of generations. This domination came to an end in the period from 133 BC to 122 BC in the tumults between the Gracchi brothers, who were my grandsons. The Gracchi brothers championed land redistribution in order to boost the ranks of potential Roman soldiers, as Roman soldiers needed to own land to be enfranchised for service in the legions and the number of Roman land owners was withering.
In my next life I was born in Greece and became a Greek Thracian gladiator. I was one of the escaped slave leaders in the Third Servile War, a major slave uprising against the Roman Republic. I served as a mercenary soldier with the Romans, and had been imprisoned for desertion and because of my strength, sold as a gladiator. This rebellion, an example of oppressed people fighting for their freedom against a slave-owning oligarchy, has provided inspiration for many. The goal of the rebellion was not to end slavery in the Republic, nor do any of the actions of the rebel leaders, who themselves committed numerous atrocities.
I was trained at the gladiatorial school as a heavyweight gladiator to carry a big oblong shield and to use a sword with a broad, straight blade nearly 50 cm long. When I was 38 years old, I was among a group of gladiators plotting an escape. About 70 of us were part of the plot. Though few in numbers, we seized kitchen utensils, fought our way free from the school, and seized several wagons of gladiatorial weapons and armor. The escaped slaves defeated legions sent after them, plundered the region, recruited many other slaves into their ranks, and eventually retired to a more defensible position on Mount Vesuvius.
Once free, the escaped gladiators chose me and two Gallic slaves as their leaders. Although Roman authors assumed that the escaped slaves were a homogeneous group with me as their leader, they may have projected their own hierarchical view of military leadership onto the spontaneous organization, reducing other slave leaders to subordinate positions in their accounts. The response of the Romans was hampered by the absence of the Roman legions, which were already engaged in fighting a revolt in Spain. Furthermore, the Romans considered the rebellion more of a policing matter than a war. Rome dispatched militia which besieged me and my camp on Mount Vesuvius, hoping that starvation would force me to surrender. They were surprised when I made ropes from vines and climbed down the cliff side of the volcano with my men and attacked the unfortified Roman camp in the rear, killing most of them.
We also defeated a second expedition, nearly captured the commander, killed his lieutenants and seized the military equipment. With these successes, more and more slaves flocked to my forces, as did many of the herdsmen and shepherds of the region, swelling our ranks to some 70,000. I proved to be an excellent tactician, displaying my previous military experience. Though the rebels lacked military training, they displayed a skillful use of available local materials and unusual tactics when facing the disciplined Roman armies. They spent the winter of 73 BC training, arming and equipping their new recruits, and expanding their raiding territory. The distance between these locations and the subsequent events indicated that the slaves operated in 2 groups. In the spring of 72 BC, the rebels left their winter encampments and began to move northward. At the same time, the Roman Senate, alarmed by the defeat of their forces, dispatched a pair of legions. The 2 legions were initially successful, defeating a group of 30,000 rebels, but then were defeated by me.
Alarmed by the unstoppable rebellion, the Senate appointed Crassus, the wealthiest man in Rome and the only volunteer for the position, with ending the rebellion. Crassus was put in charge of 8 legions, approximately 40,000 trained Roman soldiers, which he treated with harsh, even brutal, discipline, reviving the punishment of unit decimation, a form of military discipline used by senior commanders in the Roman Army to punish units or large groups guilty of capital offenses, such as mutiny or desertion.
When unit decimation was carried out, about 500 soldiers were selected for punishment by decimation and were divided into groups of 10. Each group drew lots and the soldier on whom the lot fell was executed by his 9 comrades, often by stoning or clubbing. The remaining soldiers were often given rations of barley instead of wheat, the standard soldier's diet, for a few days, and required to camp outside the fortified security of the camp. Because the punishment fell by lot, all soldiers in a group sentenced to decimation were potentially liable for execution, regardless of individual degrees of fault, rank, or distinction.
When I and my followers moved northward again in early 71 BC, Crassus deployed 6 of his legions on the borders of the region and detached his general with 2 legions to maneuver behind me. The Romans attacked at a seemingly opportune moment but were routed. After this, Crassus was victorious in several engagements, forcing me farther south. I made a bargain with pirates to transport me and some 2,000 of my men to Sicily, where I intended to incite a slave revolt and gather reinforcements. However, I was betrayed by the pirates, who took payment and then abandoned the rebels. There were some attempts at raft and shipbuilding by the rebels as a means to escape, but Crassus took measures to ensure the rebels could not cross to Sicily, and their efforts were abandoned. My forces then retreated and Crassus cut us off from our supplies by a siege. At this time, the legions returned from Hispania and were ordered by the Senate to head south to aid Crassus. While Crassus feared that the new legions that arrived would claim credit for his victory, I unsuccessfully tried to reach an agreement with Crassus. When Crassus refused, a portion of my forces fled toward the mountains with Crassus' legions in pursuit.
When the legions managed to catch a portion of the rebels separated from the main army, discipline among my forces broke down as small groups were independently attacking the oncoming legions. I turned my forces around and brought my entire strength to bear on the legions in a last stand, in which the rebels were routed completely, with the vast majority of them being killed on the battlefield.
The final battle that defeated me was in 71BC. I died during the battle, but my body was never found. 6,000 survivors of the revolt captured by the legions of Crassus were crucified, lining the Appian Way from Rome to Capua.
My motives and goal at the beginning was never to reform Roman society by abolishing slavery. I just wished to escape Italy and go north back to my home. And I wanted to help my fellow slaves to do the same. But I turned south after defeating the Roman legions instead of taking my forces thru a clear passage over the Alps. This was because my victories and successes and the number of slaves joining my small group changed my motives and goals to increase my forces and march on Rome. But unfortunately, most of the escaped slaves preferred to plunder Italy, rather than escape over the Alps.
In my next life I was born in China. I offered my services as military general to warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty and became one of his most trusted generals and a legend when during a battle I was hit by a stray arrow and lost my left eye. In front of my amazed soldiers and enemies alike, I pulled out the arrow and swallowed my own eyeball. Following this incident, enemy armies across China were afflicted by fear of “Blind Xiahou, The One-Eyed Warrior.” I became a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty. As one of Cao Cao's most trusted generals, I aided the warlord in his campaigns against his many enemies.
At the age of 13, I killed a man who insulted my teacher. I was known for my fiery personality since then. In 190, when Cao Cao was raising an army to participate in the campaign, I became an officer under him and fought in many battles. When Cao Cao was appointed as a general, I was commissioned as a Major. I was later promoted to colonel and was appointed as an administrator. In 193, Cao Cao left his base and I stayed behind to defend one of his key strongholds.
While Cao Cao was away, his subordinates rebelled and defected to another warlord. When Cao Cao learnt of the rebellion, he returned immediately. I participated in the battles with him and was hit in the left eye by a stray arrow during one engagement. After the loss of my left eye, I was given the nickname "Blind Xiahou" in Cao Cao's army. I hated this nickname and I would throw a mirror to the ground whenever I saw my own reflection. The leader of the enemy was besieged by Cao Cao for over 100 days and he eventually abandoned the city when a famine broke out. Cao Cao seized back his previously lost territories.
While I was in office, a drought broke out and there was a locust infestation in the region. To counter these problems, I spearheaded an agricultural programme, in which I instructed workers to dam up the Taishou River to create a large pond. I personally participated in the construction works and also encouraged the people to grow rice in the inundated land. This programme greatly aided the people during those years of severe famine.
In 202, Cao Cao's rival took advantage of Cao Cao's absence to attack central China. In response, Cao Cao sent me to lead an army to resist. 2 years later, I was promoted to general. I was able to administer and oversee affairs smoothly without being hampered by bureaucratic red tape. In 207, I was granted an additional 1,800 taxable households in my district in recognition of my contributions, bringing the total number of households to 2,500.
In 216, after a campaign against one of the rivals of Cao Cao, I was placed in command of 26 military units each comprising 12,500 soldiers. I was awarded with performing courtesans to entertain me. Cao Cao treated me like a close aide. He let me ride in the same carriage with him and allowed me to enter his living quarters. In 219, Cao Cao received the title "King of Wei" from Emperor Xian, and was hence endowed with the authority to set up an independent vassal kingdom, which was still nominally under the Han central government.
Even though I was a military serviceman, I personally welcomed teachers to tutor me in camp. I led a frugal and simple lifestyle and used my excess wealth to help the needy. I took from official treasuries instead of from the common people when I did not have enough money, and I did not own much property.
I was promoted to the position of "General-in-Chief" and I died some months later. My offspring inherited not only my titles, but also my reputation. In hindsight, having lost that bloody eye the way I did and thus gaining the reputation of “the One-eyed Warrior” was the best thing that could have happened to me and to my offspring.
I was the first caliph of the Abbasid caliphate, one of the longest and most important caliphate in Islamic history. The Abbasid Caliphate was the third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. They were Shias who eventually turned into Sunnis. They ruled from their capital in Baghdad in Iraq, as caliphs for most of their period after assuming authority over the Muslim empire from the Sunni Umayyads in 750.
Abbasids found themselves at odds with the Shia Muslims, most of whom had supported their war against the Umayyads, since the Abbasids and the Shias claimed legitimacy by their familial connection to Prophet Muhammad. Once in power, the Abbasids embraced Sunni Islam and disavowed any support for Shia beliefs.
The Sunni Umayyad Caliphate was the second Arab caliphate established after the death of Muhammad. Damascus was their capital. The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, right after Muhammad`s death in 632, incorporating the Caucasus and Spain into the Muslim world. At the time, the Umayyad taxation and administrative practice were perceived as unjust by some Muslims. The Christian and Jewish population still had autonomy; their judicial matters were dealt with in accordance with their own laws and by their own religious heads or their appointees, although they did pay a poll tax for policing to the central state. Muhammad had stated explicitly during his lifetime that Abrahamic religious groups should be allowed to practice their own religion.
The Abbasid caliphs were Arabs descended from one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad. The Abbasids claimed to be the true successors of Prophet Muhammad in replacing the Umayyad descendants by virtue of their closer bloodline to Muhammad. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking their moral character and administration.
The first change the Abbasids made was to move the empire's capital from Damascus, in Syria, to Baghdad in Iraq. The Abbasids had depended heavily on the support of Persians in their overthrow of the Umayyads. The choice of Baghdad as the capital of the Abbasids, so close to Persia proper, reflected a growing reliance on Persian bureaucrats to govern the territories conquered by Arab Muslims, as well as an increasing inclusion of non-Arab Muslims.
By the 920s, the Sunni Abbasids lost control of North Africa and a Shia sect called the Fatimid dynasty that traced its roots to Muhammad's daughter Fatima took control. They had advanced to Egypt and established their capital in Cairo, which they built as a bastion of Shia learning and politics. The Fatimid Caliphate was a Shia Islamic caliphate that spanned a large area of North Africa, from the Red Sea in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west. The dynasty ruled across the Mediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the center of the caliphate.
After the initial conquests, the Fatimid caliphate often allowed a degree of religious tolerance towards Sunni Muslims as well as to Jews, Persians, and Coptic and Nestorian Christians. The Fatimid caliphate was also distinguished by the central role of Berbers in its initial establishment and in helping its development, especially on the military and political levels. 200 years after it came into power, it declined rapidly. In 1171, the Kurdish Sunni Moslem army of Saladin invaded their territory and founded the Sunni Ayyubid dynasty.
The Coptic Church belongs to the Oriental Orthodox family of Churches, which has been a distinct Christian body since the schism in 451, when it took a different position over Christology from that of the rest of the Christian Church which split 600 years later into the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church. Coptic Christians believe in the dual nature of Christ claiming that he was both god and man. They are found mainly in Egypt.
Nestorian Christians, follow a similar doctrine to the dual nature of Christ as the Coptic Christians and are found mainly in the far east.
Most Berber people live in North Africa, mainly in Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco. The majority of Berbers are Sunni Muslim. The unifying forces for the Berber people is their shared language, or a collective identification with Berber heritage and history.
Many Kurds consider themselves descended from the Medes, an ancient Persian (Iranian) people who in 612 BC conquered the Assyrian capital of Nineveh. The majority of Kurds have become Sunni Muslims.
The political power of the Abbasid caliphs largely ended with the rise of the Sunni Seljuq Turks and Abbasid leadership over the vast Islamic empire was gradually reduced to a ceremonial religious function. The Seljuq dynasty was a Sunni Muslim dynasty that established both the Seljuk Empire and Sultanate of Rum, which at their heights stretched from Turkey through Iran and were targets of the First Crusade that was fought between 1095 and 1099 and resulted in the capture of Jerusalem. The capital city of Baghdad became a center of science, culture, philosophy and invention during the Golden Age of Islam.
The Abbasids originally Shia gained power by fighting against the social inequalities against non-Arabs in the Sunni Umayyad Empire. During Abbasid rule the empire rapidly Arabized and they themselves became Sunnis. As knowledge was shared in the Arabic language throughout the empire, people of different nationalities and religions began to speak Arabic in their everyday lives. Resources from other languages began to be translated into Arabic, and a unique Islamic identity began to form that fused previous cultures with Arab culture, creating a level of civilization and knowledge that was considered a marvel in Europe when science, economic development and cultural works flourished. This period of cultural fruition ended in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols. Though lacking in political power, the Abbasid dynasty continued to claim authority in religious matters until the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517.
I traced my lineage to a great-grandfather of Muhammad via an uncle of Muhammad. This indirect link to Muhammad's larger clan formed sufficient basis for my claim to the title caliph, even though I myself never converted to Islam. Many believed that in the end times a great leader would appear from the family of Muhammad who would deliver Islam from corrupt leadership. The policies of the late Umayyads of not requiring a blood-line of Muhammad as a caliph and of tolerating non-Arab Muslims and Shias was considered by many as a corruption and led to mutiny and revolt.
During the last days of the Umayyad caliphate, I with my clan chose to begin our rebellion and defeated the Umayyads. This victory was considered by many as fulfilling prophesy effectively marking the end of the Umayyad caliphate and start of the Abbasid caliphate. I invited all of the members of the Umayyad family to a dinner party where I had them clubbed to death before the first course, which was then served to the hosts. The only survivor escaped to Spain where the Umayyad caliphate endured for 300 years.
My 4-year reign was marked with efforts to consolidate and rebuild the caliphate. My supporters were represented in the new government, but apart from my policy toward the Umayyad family, I allowed non-Muslims to be well represented in my government. My descendants who ruled after I died continued this practice of tolerance. I also encouraged education and I set up the first paper mills in Samarkand which were staffed by skilled Chinese prisoners that I captured. I reformed my army to include non-Muslims and non-Arabs in sharp contrast to the Umayyads who refused any soldiers of either type. Not all Muslims accept the legitimacy of my caliphate, however.
I died of smallpox when I was 32 years old, only 4 years after taking the title of caliph. Before I died, I appointed my brother as my successor.
Like my brother Methodius, I was born to become a Byzantine Christian theologian and a Christian missionary. We worked together, and together we influenced the cultural development of all Slavs. For this, we received the title "Apostles to the Slavs". We were both venerated in the Orthodox Church as saints with the title of "equal-to-apostles". 1000 years after I died, Pope John Paul II declared us co-patron saints of Europe, together with Benedict of Nursia.
I was born in Greece and was the youngest of 7 brothers. My name was Constantine for most of my life. I changed my name to Cyril upon becoming a monk in Rome shortly before I died. My brother was Michael for most of his life and he changed it to Methodius when he became a monk. My father died when I was only 14 years old. Theoktistos, one of the chief ministers of the Empire, became our protector. He was responsible for initiating a far-reaching educational program within the Empire which culminated in the establishment of the University of Magnaura, where I was to teach. I was ordained as priest sometime after I finished my education. My brother Methodius remained only a deacon.
My mastery of theology and command of both Arabic and Hebrew made me eligible for my first state mission. I was sent to the Shia Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil to discuss the principle of the Holy Trinity with the Arab theologians, and to improve relations between the Caliphate and the Empire.
When I was 32 years old, I went on a second mission which was requested by the Byzantine Emperor Michael III and the Patriarch of Constantinople Photius who was my professor of at the University and my guiding light in earlier years. It was a missionary expedition to the Khazar Khaganate in Crimea in order to prevent the expansion of Judaism there. This mission was unsuccessful, as later the Khagan imposed Judaism on his people as the national religion. My brother Methodius accompanied me on the mission to the Khazars. I learned the Khazar language while in Crimea. After my return to Constantinople, I assumed the role of professor of philosophy at the University while my brother had by this time become a significant player in Byzantine political and administrative affairs, and an abbot of his monastery.
When I was 34 years old, I and my brother began our work which would give us our historical importance. King Rastislav of Czechoslovakia requested that Emperor Michael III send missionaries to evangelize his Slavic subjects. His motives in doing so were probably more political than religious. Rastislav had become king with the support of the Frankish ruler, but subsequently sought to assert his independence from the Franks. Rastislav's people had already rejected paganism and adhered to the Christian law. Rastislav is said to have expelled missionaries of the Roman Church and instead turned to Constantinople for ecclesiastical assistance and, presumably, a degree of political support. The Emperor chose to send me accompanied by my brother Methodius. The request provided a convenient opportunity to expand Byzantine influence. We spent our first week training our assistants. One year later, we began the task of translating the Bible into Old Church Slavonic and travelled to Czechoslovakia to promote it. We enjoyed considerable success in this endeavor. However, we came into conflict with German ecclesiastics who opposed our efforts to create a specifically Slavic liturgy.
For the purpose of this mission, we devised the Glagolitic alphabet, the first alphabet to be used for Slavonic manuscripts. The Glagolitic alphabet was suited to match the specific features of the Slavic language. It was later modified to the script named after me - the Cyrillic script which ended up to be used by many different Slavic languages. We wrote the first Slavic Civil Code, which was used in Czechoslovakia. The language derived from Old Church Slavonic, known as Church Slavonic, continued to be used in liturgy by several Orthodox Churches and also in some Eastern Catholic churches. We translated. The New Testament and the Psalms first, followed by other books from the Old Testament.
When I was 39 years old, Pope Nicholas I invited my brother and me to Rome. Our evangelizing mission had become the focus of a dispute with Theotmar, the Archbishop of Salzburg and bishop of Passau, who claimed ecclesiastical control of the same territory and wished to see it use the Latin liturgy exclusively. Traveling with a retinue of disciples, we passed through Hungary in the Balaton Principality where we were well received. We arrived in Rome a year later where we were warmly received because we brought with us the relics of Saint Clement and because of the rivalry with Constantinople as to the jurisdiction over the territory of the Slavs. Rome displayed how much they valued our influence.
My brother and I were also highly praised and cultivated for our influence in Constantinople. Our project with the Slavs in Czechoslovakia was supported by Pope Adrian II, who formally authorized the use of the new Slavic liturgy. Subsequently my brother Methodius was ordained as priest by the pope himself, and 5 Slavic disciples were ordained as priests. The newly ordained priests officiated in their own languages at the altars of some of the principal churches.
Feeling my end approaching, I became a monk, and was given the new name Cyril. I was made a bishop and I died in Rome 50 days later at the age of 41. I was regarded by my disciples as a saint soon after my death. My following spread among the nations I evangelized and subsequently to the wider Christian Church and I became along with my brother Methodius famous as a holy man. There were calls for my canonization from the crowds lining the Roman streets during my funeral procession.
My brother Methodius continued the work among the Slavs alone, not only in Czechoslovakia, but later also in Hungary in the Balaton Principality when Rastislav had been taken captive by his nephew. His activity in Hungary caused conflict with the German episcopate, and especially with the bishop of Salzburg, who held jurisdiction in Hungary for the past 75 years. The pope named Methodius archbishop with jurisdiction over Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Serbia thus superseding the claims of Salzburg. The archiepiscopal claims of Methodius were considered such an injury to the rights of Salzburg that he was forced to answer for them at a synod held at Regensburg in the presence of King Louis. The assembly, after a heated discussion, declared the deposition of the intruder, and ordered Methodius to be sent to Germany, where he was kept prisoner for two and a half years.
Rome declared emphatically for Methodius, and sent a bishop to reinstate him and punish his enemies, after which both parties were commanded to appear in Rome with the legate. Methodius secured his freedom and his archiepiscopal authority over Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Serbia, though the use of Slavonic for the mass was still denied to him, which he disregarded. After Methodius died in 882 AD, Gorazd, whom Methodius had designated as his successor, was not recognized by Pope Stephen V. The same Pope forbade the use of the Slavic liturgy and replaced Gorazd with Wiching who exiled the disciples that had so loyally served and followed my brother and me. Our disciples fled to Bulgaria where they were welcomed to establish theological schools and commissioned by Tsar Boris I of Bulgaria to instruct the future clergy of the state in the Slavonic language.
There they devised the script named after me, the Cyrillic script on the basis of the Glagolitic. The Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets are the oldest known Slavic alphabets. They were created to translate the Bible and other texts into the Slavic languages. The early Cyrillic alphabet was developed in Bulgaria and later finalized and spread by disciples as a simplification of the Glagolitic alphabet which more closely resembled the Greek alphabet. Cyrillic gradually replaced Glagolitic as the alphabet of the Old Church Slavonic language, which became the official language of Bulgaria and later spread to the Eastern Slav lands of Kievan Rus`. Cyrillic eventually spread throughout most of the Slavic world to become the standard alphabet in the Eastern Orthodox Slavic countries. My brother and I paved the way for the spread of Christianity throughout Eastern Europe.
In my next life I was born in Afghanistan to my father who was of Persian descent. I spent almost my entire life in Baghdad. I studied logic, medicine and sociology. I started to write in Baghdad and then left and went to Syria. I also lived and taught for some time in Aleppo. Later on I visited Egypt and added 6 sections to my book. I finished my book in Damascus when I was 71 years old and 6 years later I wrote a summary.
Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back 30,000 years. The country's strategic location along the Silk Road connected it to the cultures of the Middle East and other parts of Asia. The land has historically been home to various peoples and has witnessed numerous military campaigns, including those by Alexander the Great, Muslim Arabs, Mongols, British, Soviet, and by the United States. It has been called "unconquerable" and nicknamed the "graveyard of empires".The land also served as the source from which others have risen to form major empires. In the late 1970s, Afghanistan in a series of coups first became a socialist state and then a Soviet Union protectorate. This evoked the Soviet-Afghan War in the 1980s against rebels. By 1996 most of Afghanistan was captured by the fundamentalist Islamic group the Taliban, who ruled most of the country as a totalitarian regime for almost 5 years.
I became a renowned philosopher and jurist who wrote in the fields of political philosophy, metaphysics, ethics and logic. I was also a scientist, cosmologist, mathematician and music scholar. I was one the earliest Islamic intellectuals who were instrumental in transmitting the doctrines of Plato and Aristotle to the Muslim world. I wrote a book on music titled “The Book of Music”. In it, I presented philosophical principles about music, its cosmic qualities and it dealt with therapeutic effects of music on the soul and music therapy for the body. I invented several musical instruments, besides contributing to the knowledge of musical notes. I could play my instrument so well as to make people laugh or weep at will.
I became to be called "the Second Master", after Aristotle. I was credited with preserving the original Greek texts during the Middle Ages because of my commentaries and treatises, and influencing many prominent philosophers, like Avicenna and Maimonides. Through my works, I became well-known in the East as well as the West. I spent significant time in Baghdad with Christian scholars and Islam clerics. I later spent time in Damascus, Syria and Egypt.
I was a Shiite philosopher and made contributions to the fields of logic, mathematics, music, philosophy, psychology, and education. I was considered to be an Aristotelian logician, although I included a number of non-Aristotelian elements in my works. I categorized logic into 2 separate groups, the first being "idea" and the second being "proof”.
As a philosopher, I was a founder of my own school of early Islamic philosophy known as Farabism. I had great influence on science and philosophy for several centuries, and was widely considered second only to Aristotle in knowledge. My work aimed at synthesis of philosophy and Sufism, the inner mystical dimension of Islam. I paved the way for the work of Avicenna. I represented religion as a symbolic rendering of truth, and, like Plato, saw it as the duty of the philosopher to provide guidance to the state. I incorporated the Platonic view, drawing a parallel from within the Islamic context, in that I regarded the ideal state to be ruled by the prophet-imam, instead of the philosopher-king envisaged by Plato. I argued that the ideal state was the city-state of Medina when it was governed by the prophet Muhammad as its head of state, as he was in direct communion with Allah whose law was revealed to him.
I wrote a short treatise "On Vacuum", where I thought about the nature of the existence of void. I carried out the first experiments concerning the existence of vacuum, in which I investigated handheld plungers in water. I concluded that air's volume can expand to fill available space, and I suggested that the concept of perfect vacuum was incoherent.
I wrote “Social Psychology” and “Principles of the Opinions of the Citizens of the Ideal City”, the first treatises to deal with social psychology. I stated that an isolated individual could not achieve all the perfections by himself, without the aid of other individuals, and that it is the innate disposition of every man to join another human being or other men in the labor he ought to perform. I concluded that to achieve what he can of that perfection, every man needs to stay in the neighborhood of others and associate with them.
In my treatise “On the Cause of Dreams”, I distinguished between dream interpretation and the nature and causes of dreams. The main influence on my philosophy was the neo-Aristotelian tradition of Alexandria. I was credited with over 100 works. My ideas are marked by their coherency, despite drawing together of many different philosophical disciplines and traditions. Some other significant influences on my work were the planetary model of Ptolemy and elements of Neo-Platonism, particularly metaphysics and practical or political philosophy which bears more resemblance to Plato's “Republic” than Aristotle's “Politics”. I played an essential part in the handing down of Aristotle’s thought to the Christian west in the middle ages. I had a great influence on Maimonides, the most important Jewish thinker of the middle ages. Maimonides wrote in Arabic the “Treatise on logic”. In a wonderfully concise way, the work treated the essentials of Aristotelian logic in the light of comments made by me and the Persian philosophers. Avicenna remarked that he did not understand Aristotle's Metaphysics properly until he read an abstract in one of my papers.
In my cosmology, the universe was a number of concentric circles.
- The outermost sphere or "first heaven",
- The sphere of fixed stars, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars,
- The Sun, Venus, Mercury and finally,
- The Moon.
At the center of these concentric circles was the sub-lunar realm which contained the material world. Each of these circles represented the domain of the secondary intelligences symbolized by the celestial bodies themselves, which acted as causal intermediaries between the First Cause - God and the material world. The process of emanation began metaphysically and not temporally with the First Cause, whose principal activity was self-contemplation. It was that intellectual activity that underlined its role in the creation of the universe.
The First Cause, by thinking of itself, overflowed and the incorporeal entity of the second intellect emanated from it. Like its predecessor, the second intellect also thought about itself, and thereby brought its celestial sphere - the sphere of fixed stars, into being. In addition it had to also contemplate upon the First Cause, and this caused the emanation of the next intellect. The cascade of emanations continued until it reached the material world. And as each intellect had to contemplate both itself, and an increasing number of predecessors, each succeeding level of existence became more and more complex.
I suggested that the more philosophically simple a thing was, the more perfect it was. I envisioned human beings as unique in the universe because they stood between 2 worlds: the "higher", immaterial world and the "lower", material world of generation and decay. They inhabited a physical body, and so belonged to the "lower" world, but they also had a rational capacity, which connected them to the "higher" realm. Each level of existence in my cosmology was characterized by its movement towards perfection, which eventually became the First Cause, or God, a perfect intellect. Human perfection or "happiness", then, was equated with constant intellectualization and contemplation.
I claimed that just as the Sun illuminated the physical world to allow us to see, God illuminated our soul to allow us to think. I believed in free will. This took place when man, based on the knowledge he had acquired, decided whether to direct himself towards virtuous or unvirtuous activities, and thereby decided whether or not to seek true happiness. And it was by choosing what was ethical and contemplating about what constituted the nature of ethics that the actual intellect was able to attain perfection. It was only by this process that a human soul was able to survive death, and live on in the afterlife.
I claimed that the afterlife was not the personal experience commonly conceived of by religious traditions such as Islam and Christianity. Any individual or distinguishing features of the soul were annihilated after the death of the body. Only the rational faculty survived and then, only if it had attained perfection, which became one with all other rational souls within the agent intellect and enters a realm of pure intelligence.
I claimed that the soul was composed of 4 faculties:
- The appetitive - the desire for, or aversion to an object of sense by attraction or repulsion to them.
- The sensitive - the perception by the senses of corporeal substances.
- The imaginative - the faculty which retained images of sensible objects after they were perceived, and then separated and combined for a number of ends.
- The rational - the faculty of thinking. It was the last of those which was unique to human beings and distinguished them from plants and animals. It was also the only part of the soul to survive the death of the body.
What I failed to take into consideration was the internal senses, such as common sense. Those were later discussed by philosophers such as Avicenna and Averroes after I died.
I claimed that the prophesying of prophets used the imaginative faculty of the soul which extended the representative ability of the imagination beyond sensible forms and to include temperaments, emotions, and desires. The prophet, in addition to his own intellectual capacity, had a very strong imaginative faculty, which allowed him to receive an overflow of intellect from God and associate them with symbols and images. This allowed him to communicate abstract truths in a way that could be understood by ordinary people. What made prophetic knowledge unique was not its content, which was also accessible to philosophers through demonstration and intellectualization, but rather the form that it was given by the prophet's imagination.
The practical application of philosophy was a major concern of mine. While the majority of my philosophical output was influenced by Aristotelian thought, my practical philosophy was unmistakably based on that of Plato. In a similar manner to Plato's “Republic”, I emphasized that philosophy was both a theoretical and a practical discipline. I refer to the practical philosophy as political philosophy. I discussed that in my paper titled”The Ideal City”.
I claimed that the “ideal” society was one directed towards the realization of "true happiness" which could be taken to mean philosophical enlightenment and as such, the ideal philosopher had to hone all the necessary arts of rhetoric and poetics to communicate abstract truths to the ordinary people. As well he had to achieve enlightenment himself. I compared the philosopher's role in relation to society with a physician in relation to the body; the body's health was affected by the "balance of its humors" just as the city was determined by the moral habits of its people. I claimed that the philosopher's duty was to establish an "ideal" society by healing the souls of the people, establishing justice and guiding them towards "true happiness".
Of course, I realized that such a society was rare and required a very specific set of historical circumstances to be realized, which meant very few societies could ever attain this goal. I divided those "ideal" societies, which fell short into 3 categories: ignorant, wicked, and errant.
Ignorant societies failed to comprehend the purpose of human existence, and supplanted the pursuit of happiness for another inferior goal, whether it was wealth, sensual gratification or power. Democratic societies fell into this category, as they too lack any guiding principle.
Both wicked and errant societies understood the true human end, but they failed to follow it. The wicked, because they willfully abandoned it, and the errant because their leaders deceived and misguided them.
I died a bachelor in Damascus when I was 80 years old.
I was born in my next life to become a Persian polymath - a person whose expertise spans a significant number of different subject areas. I was regarded as one of the most significant thinkers and writers of the Islamic Golden Age.
Of the 450 works I was known to have written in Arabic, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine. My most famous works are “The Book of Healing” – a philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and “The Canon of Medicine” – a medical encyclopedia which became a standard medical text at many medieval universities and remained in use as late as 1650AD.
Besides philosophy and medicine, my works includes writings on astronomy, alchemy, geography and geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics and poetry. My metaphysics influenced the thought of Thomas Aquinas. I argued that the Islamic prophets should be considered higher than philosophers.
I created an extensive corpus of works during what is commonly known as the Islamic Golden Age, in which the translations of Greco-Roman, Persian, and Indian texts were studied extensively. Greco-Roman texts were commented, redacted and developed substantially by Islamic intellectuals, who also built upon Persian and Indian mathematical systems, astronomy, algebra, trigonometry and medicine. Both the Iranian Sunni Samanid dynasty in the Eastern part of Persia as well as the Iranian Shia Buyid dynasty in the western part of Persia and Iraq provided a thriving atmosphere for scholarly and cultural development. Under the Samanids, Bukhara rivaled Baghdad as a cultural capital of the Islamic world.
Philosophy and theology were further developed, most noticeably by me and my opponents. Al-Razi and Al-Farabi had provided methodology and knowledge in medicine and philosophy. I had access to many great libraries and personally met many distinguished scholars like Al-Biruni, a scientist and astronomer, Abu Nasr Iraqi, a renowned mathematician, Abu Sahl Masihi, a respected philosopher and Abu al-Khayr Khammar, a great physician.
I was born near Bukhara, Uzbekistan, the capital of the Samanid Empire. I first began to learn the Quran and literature in such a way that by the time I was 10 years old, I had essentially memorized the entire Quran.
I learned Indian arithmetic from an Indian grocer and I began to learn more from a wandering scholar who gained a livelihood by curing the sick and teaching the young. As a teenager, I was greatly troubled by the Metaphysics of Aristotle, which I could not understand until I read al-Farabi's commentary on the work. For the next year and a half, I studied philosophy, in which I encountered greater obstacles. In such moments of baffled inquiry, I would leave my books and perform the requisite ablutions, the Islamic procedure for washing hands, mouth, nostrils, arms, head, and feet, then go to the mosque, and continue in prayer till light broke on my difficulties. Deep into the night, I would continue my studies, and even in my dreams problems would pursue me and work out their solution. I read through the Metaphysics of Aristotle 40 times, till the words were imprinted on my memory; but their meaning was hopelessly obscure, until one day they found illumination, from the little commentary by Farabi, which I bought at a bookstall for a very small sum. I was so happy and thankful at the discovery that I immediately thanked God and bestowed alms upon the poor.
I started to be interested in medicine when I was 16 years old. I not only learned medical theory, but also volunteered to care for the sick and this way discovered new methods of treatment. I achieved full status as a qualified physician 2 years later. I found that medicine was not a hard and thorny science, like mathematics and metaphysics, so I soon made great progress. I became an excellent doctor and began to treat patients, using approved remedies. My fame spread quickly, and I treated many patients without asking for payment.
My first appointment was that of physician to the emir, prince Nuh II, whom I helped to recover from a dangerous illness. My chief reward for this service was access to the royal library of the Samanids and I met many well-known scholars there. When the library was destroyed by fire not long after, my enemies accused me of setting the fire, in order to forever conceal the sources of my knowledge.
When I was 22 years old, my father died and 2 years later, the Samanid dynasty ended. I traveled westwards to Turkmenistan, where the vizier, the high ranking political minister, regarded as a friend of scholars, gave me a small monthly stipend. The pay was too small and I was forced to seek work elsewhere. Finally, near the Caspian Sea, I met with a friend, who bought a dwelling near his own house in which I lectured on logic and astronomy. Several of my treatises were written for this patron. I subsequently settled in the vicinity of Tehran, where a son of the last emir, the prince, was nominal ruler under the regency of his mother. I wrote about 30 of my shorter works there. Constant feuds within the royal family compelled me to quit and leave.
I traveled southwards where another emir had established himself. At first, I entered into the service of a high-born lady; but the emir, hearing of my arrival, called me in as medical attendant. I was eventually raised to the office of vizier. The emir disapproved of me being a politician and decreed that I should be banished from the country. I remained hidden for 40 days in sheikh Ahmed Fadhel's house, the king place, until a fresh attack of illness induced the emir to restore me to my post. Even during this perturbed time, I continued with my studies and teaching. On the death of the emir, I ceased to be vizier and hid myself in the house of a pharmacist where I continued to write. Meanwhile, I applied for a position in Isfahan. The new emir heard where I was hiding arrested me and I was put in prison. I was able to escape from the city dressed like a Sufi ascetic. After a perilous journey I arrived in Isfahan and received an honorable welcome from the prince.
The remaining decade of my life was spent in the service of the Kakuyid ruler Ala al-Dawla, whom I accompanied as physician and general literary and scientific adviser. During these years I began to study literary matters and philology, the study of literary texts and written records.
I was a devout Muslim and sought to reconcile rational philosophy with Islamic theology. My aim was to prove the existence of God and His creation of the world scientifically and through reason and logic. My views on Islamic theology and philosophy were enormously influential, forming part of the core of the curriculum at Islamic religious schools until the 19th century. I wrote a number of short treatises dealing with Islamic theology. These included treatises on the prophets whom I viewed as "inspired philosophers", and also on various scientific and philosophical interpretations of the Quran, such as how Quranic cosmology corresponds to my own philosophical system. In general these treatises linked my philosophical writings to Islamic religious ideas; for example, the body's afterlife. I considered philosophy as the only sensible way to distinguish real prophecy from illusion.
Later interpretations of my philosophy split into 3 different schools:
- Those who continued to apply my philosophy as a system to interpret later political events and scientific advances. They eventually came to predominate in the madrasahs who trained students who 1000 years later formed the Taliban, an Islamic fundamentalist political movement in Afghanistan that waged an insurgency and jihad holy war within that country.
- Those who considered my theological works in isolation from my wider philosophical concerns; and
- Those who selectively used parts of my philosophy to support their own attempts to gain greater spiritual insights through a variety of mystical means.
On geology, I explained the formation of mountains. I claimed that either they were the effects of upheavals of the crust of the earth, such as might occur during a violent earthquake, or they were the effect of water, which, cutting itself a new route, has denuded the valleys, the strata being of different kinds, some soft, some hard. I claimed that it would require a long period of time for all such changes to be accomplished, during which the mountains themselves might be eroded and diminished in size.
On mechanics, I developed a theory of motion, in which I made a distinction between the tendency to motion and force of a projectile. I concluded that motion was a result of a tendency to motion transferred to the projectile by the thrower, and that projectile motion in a vacuum would not cease. I viewed the tendency of motion as a permanent force whose effect is dissipated by external forces such as air resistance.
On optics, I argued that light had a speed, observing that if the perception of light was due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite. I provided an explanation of the rainbow phenomenon. I observed that the bow was not formed in the dark cloud but rather in the very thin mist lying between the cloud and the sun or observer. I claimed that the cloud served simply as the background of this thin substance, much as a quicksilver lining was placed upon the rear surface of the glass in a mirror.
On thermodynamics, I postulated that heat was generated from motion in external things.
On psychology, I postulated that connection between the body and soul was strong enough to ensure the soul's individuation, but weak enough to allow for its immortality. I grounded my psychology on physiology, which meant that my account of the soul was one that dealt almost entirely with the natural science of the body and its abilities of perception. Thus, the philosopher's connection between the soul and body was explained almost entirely by my understanding of perception. In this way, bodily perception interrelated with the immaterial human intellect.
On sense perception, I claimed that the perceiver sensed the form of the object by perceiving features of the object by external senses. This sensory information was supplied to the internal senses, which merged all the pieces into a whole, unified conscious experience. This process of perception and abstraction was the nexus of the soul and body, for the material body may only perceive material objects, while the immaterial soul may only receive the immaterial, universal forms.
The soul completed the action of understanding by accepting forms that have been abstracted from matter. This process required a concrete particular material to be abstracted into the universal intelligible immaterial. The material and immaterial interacted through our intellect, which was a "divine light" containing the intelligible forms. Our intellect revealed the universals concealed in material objects much like the sun made color available to our eyes.
On astrology, I cited passages from the Quran to dispute the power of astrology to foretell the future. I believed that each planet had some influence on the earth, but argued against astrologers being able to determine the exact effects.
On astronomy, my writings had some influence on later writers. I considered mathematical astronomy as a separate discipline to astrology. I criticized Aristotle's view of the stars receiving their light from the Sun, stating that the stars are self-luminous, and believed that the planets are also self-luminous. I claimed to have observed Venus as a spot on the Sun.
On chemistry, I explicitly disputed the theory of the transmutation of substances commonly believed by alchemists. I used distillation to produce essential oils such as rose essence, forming the foundation of what later became aromatherapy. I classified minerals into stones, fusible substances, sulfurs, and salts, building on the ideas of Aristotle.
When I was 57 years old, I developed a severe colic. The pain that started and stopped abruptly was so violent that I could scarcely stand. My friends advised me to slow down and take life moderately. I refused, however, stating that: "I prefer a short life with width to a narrow one with length". On my deathbed remorse seized me. I bestowed my goods on the poor, restored unjust gains, freed my slaves, and read through the Quran every 3 days until I died.
I have been recognized by both East and West, as one of the great figures in intellectual history.
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1000AD->1967AD
Moses Maimonides, Thomas Aquinas, Mondino de Luzzi, Guy de Chauliac, Saint Ignatius of Loyola, Miyamoto Musashi, Louis Pasteur, Ernesto "Che" Guevara
https://andrewvecseyfileslivesofangels.blogspot.com/2020/02/some-more-lives-1000-1967ad.html
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NEXT:
1000AD->1967AD
Moses Maimonides, Thomas Aquinas, Mondino de Luzzi, Guy de Chauliac, Saint Ignatius of Loyola, Miyamoto Musashi, Louis Pasteur, Ernesto "Che" Guevara
https://andrewvecseyfileslivesofangels.blogspot.com/2020/02/some-more-lives-1000-1967ad.html
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